war of the spanish succession

The war lasted over a decade, and was marked by the military leadership of notable generals such as the Duc de Villars and the Duke of Berwick for France, the Duke of Marlborough for England, and Prince Eugene of Savoy for the Austrians. He was prepared to cede Spain and Spanish America to the archduke Charles if Philip retained Milan, Naples, and Sicily. One very interesting fact that emerges in the study of the conflict is how often John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, favoured a strategy that was much more forceful and “Napoleonic” than was usual in the early 18th century, and it is clear that his bold plans were sometimes too unorthodox for his imperial ally, Prince Eugene of Savoy. In the Netherlands, Villeroi, receiving information that Marlborough had not yet been reinforced by Prussian and Hanoverian forces, struck toward Liege but was heavily defeated by Marlborough at the Battle of Ramillies (May 23, 1706). Marlborough then wanted to invade France itself and launch a simultaneous invasion of Normandy, but his plan was considered by Eugene to be too ambitious. This victory decided the issue in northern Italy. Charles II died on November 1, 1700, and on November 24, Louis XIV proclaimed Anjou King of Spain. Louis XIV gave up his attempt to control northern Italy and withdrew all his troops from that theatre. The battle marked a turning point in the war; despite winning, the allies were unable to proceed with the invasion, having suffered such tremendous casualties. In May 1712 Bolingbroke instructed James Butler, 2nd duke of Ormonde, who had succeeded Marlborough as commander in chief, not to take part in any future battles. In July Eugene attacked south down the left bank of the Adige, once more disregarding Venetian neutrality as he had in 1701. In 1711, the Archduke Charles became Holy Roman Emperor as Charles VI following the sudden death of Joseph, his elder brother; now, a decisive victory for Austria would upset the balance of power just as much as a victory for France. In 1706 Tesse besieged Barcelona, but he was compelled to withdraw in May when an English fleet forced the French ships supporting Tesse to retire to Toulon. Of Louis XIV’s many wars, his last, the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), remains the most studied. Thus, when the Partition Treaty became known in 1698, Charles II of Spain agreed to name the Bavarian Prince his heir, but assigned to him the whole Spanish Empire, not just the parts England and France had chosen. Armies of the 18th century, before the days of national conscription, were too difficult to replace for generals to be eager to risk heavy casualties if these could be avoided. His mother, Maria Antonia, had been Leopold's daughter by his first marriage, to Philip IV of Spain's younger daughter Margaret Theresa. Thereafter, the war in Spain settled into indecisive skirmishing from which it would not subsequently emerge. John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, leading a cavalry charge (centre) against the French, with the support of Prince Eugene of Savoy (right foreground, with sword), in the Battle of Blenheim, August 13, 1704, during the War of the Spanish Succession; from an engraving by Jan van Huchtenburg. The Battle of Blenheim (August 13, 1704), was the most famous victory of John Churchill, duke of Marlborough, and Eugene of Savoy during the War of the Spanish Succession. England and the Netherlands, meanwhile, were to retain their commercial rights in Spain. This enabled Marlborough to get between his enemies and Vienna. The Austrians gained most of the Spanish territories in Italy and the Netherlands. Claude-Louis-Hector (later duc) de Villars, who had replaced Catinat, followed the retreating imperial army, crossed the Rhine at Hünningen, and defeated the imperial forces at Friedlingen (October 14, 1702). He achieved little on land, and Rooke, who had been ordered to sail from Lisbon into the Mediterranean and join the duke of Savoy in an attack on Toulon, found Savoy unable to spare troops for his enterprise. He reluctantly recognized Philip as king in April 1701. It was a war of considerable movement, for it was conducted according to the strategic conception of the 18th century, which advocated maneuver and countermaneuver to contain an enemy, rather than the Napoleonic strategy of striking at the enemy’s main force regardless of losses. The two countries had fought most violently and immediately just six years prior to the War of the Spanish Succession in the War of the Grand Alliance, in which Britain and her allies defeated the French and managed to fend them off from the Spanish Netherlands and … By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. The imperial commanders had been able to discuss plans with Marlborough during his march, and it was decided that Eugene should move westward to contain Tallart at Stollhofen, while Marlborough and Louis of Baden were to attack the French on the Danube. At the beginning of July 1708, Vendôme had managed to recover Bruges and Ghent, thus asserting French control over most of the Spanish possessions in West Flanders. War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713), a conflict between France and Austria (Bourbons and Hapsburgs) for the Spanish throne. Therefore, he pretended that he was going to turn the Villeroi’s flank with a move up the Moselle. The stalemate was broken in 1706, as Marlborough drove the French out of most of the Spanish Netherlands, decisively defeating troops under Villeroi in the Battle of Ramillies in May and following up with the conquest of Antwerp and Dunkirk. The French used the lull in hostilities to put yet another army into the field under Villars, and he took up a strongly defended position in the Netherlands. if(typeof __ez_fad_position != 'undefined'){__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-newworldencyclopedia_org-large-mobile-banner-1-0')};if(typeof __ez_fad_position != 'undefined'){__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-newworldencyclopedia_org-large-mobile-banner-1-0_1')};if(typeof __ez_fad_position != 'undefined'){__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-newworldencyclopedia_org-large-mobile-banner-1-0_2')}; .large-mobile-banner-1-multi-167{border:none !important;display:block !important;float:none;line-height:0px;margin-bottom:15px !important;margin-left:0px !important;margin-right:0px !important;margin-top:15px !important;min-height:250px;min-width:300px;text-align:center !important;}. The dauphin was to get all of Spanish Italy except Milan, instead of which he would have Lorraine. Although Louis had treated William as King of England since the Treaty of Ryswick, he now recognized James II's son, James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender"), as the rightful monarch. Consequently, when Margarita’s daughter Maria Antonia, who in 1685 married the Bavarian elector Maximilian II Emanuel, gave birth in 1692 to a son, the electoral prince Joseph Ferdinand, this prince could be regarded as heir presumptive to Charles II. England and France, exhausted by the conflict, agreed to the Treaty of Den Haag (1698), (the First Partition Treaty), which named Joseph Ferdinand heir to the Spanish throne, but divided Spanish territory in Italy and the Low Countries between France and Austria. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. The duc de Boufflers, engraving by Claude-Augustin Duflos, 17th century. The war was fought mostly in Europe but included Queen Anne's War in North America. With the Peace of Utrecht, the wars to prevent French hegemony that had dominated the seventeenth century were over for the time being. In 1703 fortune began to favour the French, although in three theatres of war the imperial forces and the Maritime Powers managed to achieve minor successes. This demand eventually pushed Victor Amadeus to abandon his uneasy alliance with France and join the emperor. Galway and the archduke Charles quarreled and separated, the archduke retiring to Catalonia. Nowadays this date is remembered as the National Day of Catalonia. In 1706, the Portuguese general Marquês das Minas led an invasion of Spain from Portugal, managing to capture Madrid. A more serious attempt was launched when Marlborough and Eugene advanced toward Paris. Louis XIV was forced to negotiate; he sent his foreign minister, the Marquis de Torcy, to meet the allied commanders at The Hague. Ultimately, the main rivals for the Spanish inher… By this time the elector had been forced to retreat toward Bavaria. On the Rhine in September Tallart took Breisach and in November defeated the comte de Thüngen at Speyerbach and recaptured Landau. He was a first cousin of the King of Spain, his mother having been another sister of Philip IV; moreover, Charles II's father, Philip IV, had given the succession to the Austrian line in his will. In spite of the improvement in French fortunes during 1707, Louis XIV was still eager to end the war. In 1707, the War briefly intersected with the Great Northern War, which was being fought simultaneously in Northern Europe. 7 talking about this. The War of the Spanish Succession “American” and “Italian” policies; The reign of Charles III, 1759–88. War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), conflict that arose out of the disputed succession to the throne of Spain following the death of the childless Charles II, the last of the Spanish Habsburgs. Henri de Massue, earl of Galway, commander of the allied forces in Portugal, advanced from Portugal into Estremadura and compelled René de Froulay, comte de Tessé, to abandon Andalusia. Louis XIV went so far as to offer a subsidy to pay troops to drive Philip out of Spain, but the Maritime Powers insisted on his using French troops to do this. A third French force, under Villeroi, was in the Netherlands, holding Marlborough. After the defeat at Almansa, the help that Eugene expected from Spain was not forthcoming, and instead French troops returning victoriously were able to reinforce Tesse at Toulon. In Germany the emperor’s situation became critical because of developments in the Second Northern War, which was raging in the Baltic region. The result of this victory was that in less than two weeks Marlborough was in command of all Spain’s province of Brabant and most of its possessions in Flanders. The allies captured Mons but were unable to follow up their victory. The War of the Spanish Succession, also known as Queen Anne’s War, was a war that began in 1701and ended in 1713. The emperor was already short of troops because many minor German princes were reluctant to supply troops to him when they might be needed for their own defense. French leaders entertained grand designs, intending to use a combined French and Bavarian army to capture the Austrian capital the next year. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was fought between European powers, including a divided Spain, over who had the right to succeed Charles II as King of Spain. Charles took steps to prevent the union of France and Spain; should Anjou have inherited the French throne, Spain would have gone to his younger brother, the duc de Berri. The treaties that ended the war marked the rise of the power of Britain and the British colonial empire. In June imperial and English forces seized Madrid, though Galway was unable to maintain his hold on the capital and had to withdraw to Valencia. At sea an English expedition under Adm. Sir George Rooke against Cádiz (August–September 1702) was a failure, but Rooke managed in October to destroy the Spanish silver fleet that had taken refuge in Vigo harbour. Once again the negotiations were checked by the uncompromising attitude of England, where in December in the House of Lords the Whigs passed a resolution refusing to make a peace by which a member of the House of Bourbon should retain any of the Spanish possessions. War of the spanish succession definition, a war (1701–14) fought by Austria, England, the Netherlands, and Prussia against France and Spain, arising from disputes about the succession in Spain after the death of Charles II of Spain. The war may be said to have begun in March 1701 when French troops seized Spanish fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was a European conflict triggered by the death of the last Habsburg King of Spain, Charles II, in 1700. 2. The ultimate outcome was the erosion French and Spanish power in favour of an ascendant Britain and its growing colonial empire. When Charles II died on November 1, 1700, Louis XIV was confronted with a dilemma, If he accepted the will, he was faced with the prospect of war with Leopold I, who might have the support of the Maritime Powers. Marlborough was able to take Donauworth (July 2), thus forcing the French and Bavarian troops, under the elector and the comte de Marsin, Villars’s successor, to retreat south up the Lech River. When Louis proclaimed Philip King of … In May 1703 Portugal, therefore, relinquished its uneasy alliance with France and joined the Maritime Powers. Two dynasties claimed the Spanish throne: the French Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs; both royal families were closely related to the late King of Spain. The Whigs who made up the ministry were divided among themselves. In the meantime, Marlborough led combined English, Dutch, and German forces in the Low Countries, where he captured several important fortresses, most notably Liège. France agreed to stop supporting the Stuart pretenders to the British throne, instead recognizing Anne as the legitimate queen. Charles had bequeathed all of his possessions to Philip, duc d'Anjou - a grandson of the French King Louis XIV - who thereby became Philip V of Spain. Bourgogne's insistence that the French army not attack led Marlborough once again to unite his army with Eugene's, allowing the allied army to crush the French at the Battle of Oudenarde, and then proceeded to capture Lille. The assumption that the new reign would be short motivated the first partition treaty between the head of the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs, Leopold I (ruled 1658–1705), and Louis XIV (ruled 1643–1715) of France in January 1668. War of the Spanish Succession. A combined Franco-Bavarian army under Villars and Max Emanuel of Bavaria defeated Imperial armies under Louis of Baden and Hermann Styrum, but the Elector's timidity prevented a march on Vienna, which led to Villars's resignation. The latter theater proved the more important, as Prince Eugene and the English Duke of Marlborough each distinguished themselves as military commanders. Marlborough and Villeroi maneuvered indecisively in the Netherlands, and the story was much the same for Villars and Louis of Baden on the Rhine, and Vendôme and Eugene in Italy. in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. Thus, the issue of the inheritance of the Spanish kingdoms—which included not only Spain, but also dominions in Italy, the Low Countries, and the Americas—became quite contentious. The Austrians, who were not party to the treaty, were displeased, for they openly vied for the whole of Spain, and it was the Italian territories in which they were most interested: Richer, closer, and more governable. It was at this point that Marlborough showed his genius for appreciating the strategy of the war as a whole and his consummate skill in moving troops with unexpected speed and complete secrecy. The war was fought between England , the Dutch Republic, and the Holy Roman Empire on one side, and France on the other. Margarita Teresa, however, made no renunciation and, moreover, was named in Philip IV’s will as the next heir after his son Charles (Charles II of Spain). However, Charles, who liked to see himself as a champion of Protestant Europe, greatly disliked Louis XIV for his treatment of the Huguenots, and was generally uninterested in the western war. This time he struck south across the Po (July 18), then moved with astonishing speed westward up that river to join the duke of Savoy at Villastellone, south of Turin, and in September raised the siege of Turin. The weakness of France was clearly shown in the peace terms that Louis XIV was now prepared to consider. By now Louis of Baden and the imperial general Hermann Styrum had brought up their armies to cover any attack on Vienna, but they had failed to unite into a single force, and Villars was able to attack Styrum and defeat him at Hochstadt, near Blenheim (September 20). This caused Catalonia and Valencia to declare for the archduke Charles. This candidate, too, posed formidable problems, for Leopold's success would have reunited the powerful Spanish-Austrian Habsburg empire of the sixteenth century. France gave up various North American colonial possessions, recognizing British sovereignty over Rupert's Land and Newfoundland, and ceding Acadia and its half of Saint Kitts. On the other hand, the Kingdom of Navarre and the Basque Provinces, having supported the king against the Habsburg pretender, did not lose their autonomy and retained their traditional differentiated institutions and laws. Through English pressure, Philip renounced his claims to the French throne in May, although the French legal experts considered that no renunciation, however formal, could cancel a hereditary claim based on divine right. Art, Music, Literature, Sports and leisure, History of "War of the Spanish Succession", https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=War_of_the_Spanish_Succession&oldid=1037878, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. The war began slowly, as the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I fought to protect his own dynasty's claim to … Having met, the forces under Marlborough and Eugene faced the French under Tallard at the Battle of Blenheim. On his way back to England, Rooke managed to capture Gibraltar (August 4) and to defeat the French fleet at Vélez-Málaga (August 24), which gave England command of the Mediterranean for the rest of the war. Jan 29, 2021 - Explore David Norris's board "War of Spanish Succession" on Pinterest. As the War of the Grand Alliance came to a close in 1697, the issue of the Spanish succession was becoming critical. Corrections? Two sons of these marriages, Louis XIV and the emperor Leopold I, respectively, married their Spanish cousins Marie-Thérèse and Margarita Teresa, the daughters of Philip IV and sisters of Charles II. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was a European conflict of the early 18th century, triggered by the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700, the last Habsburg monarch of Spain. Marlborough and Eugene attacked the enemy at the Battle of Blenheim on August 13, 1704, and achieved a victory that shattered the reputation of the French army and compelled the French to withdraw to the west of the Rhine. The campaigns of the Duke of Marlborough and his allies in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13) stopped France dominating Europe. John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, at the Battle of Blenheim (1704), during the War of the Spanish Succession. Next year, although Marlborough captured Bonn and drove the Elector of Cologne into exile, he failed in his efforts to capture Antwerp, and the French were successful in Germany. In Italy Vendôme was justifiably suspicious of the loyalty of his ally Victor Amadeus II, the duke of Savoy, and demanded that he hand over Turin and Susa to the French and even disband his troops. The situation facing the emperor was very grave, but the elector of Bavaria lacked Marlborough’s initiative. This event revolutionized the whole international situation, for the heir presumptive was Joseph’s brother, the archduke Charles, and no English or Dutch government would continue a war to put the Spanish empire under the control of the prince who would also be the ruler (as Charles VI) of the Holy Roman Empire and the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. Marlborough wanted to attack along the French coast, supported by the English fleet, but this plan was again too unorthodox to win the approval of his allies. This page has been replaced by a Facebook group called "Wargaming the War of the Spanish Succession and Marlborough's Wars" It led to the War of the Spanish Succession which lasted from 1701 till 1714. By the end of the year, however, Madrid was recovered by an army led by King Philip V and the Duke of Berwick (the illegitimate son of James II of England, serving in the French army). The young Bavarian prince abruptly died of smallpox in 1699, reopening the issue of the Spanish succession. He retained the Spanish overseas empire, but ceded the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and Sardinia to Austria; Sicily and parts of the Milanese to Savoy; and Gibraltar and Minorca to Great Britain. The War of Independence; The Constitution of Cadiz, 1812; Ferdinand VII, 1814–33 As a consequence, France's hegemony over continental Europe was ended, and the idea of a balance of power became a part of the international order due to its mention in the Treaty of Utrecht. The Italian territories would go to France, while the Archduke would receive the remainder of the Spanish empire. War of the Spanish Succession. This had a deep effect on the Dutch deputies, who remained excessively cautious and timid throughout the war. By the end of the year 1703, however, France had suffered setbacks for Portugal and Savoy had defected to the other side. Of the two daughters of Philip III of Spain (Charles II’s grandfather), the elder, Anne, married Louis XIII of France, and the younger, Maria Anna, married the future Habsburg emperor Ferdinand III. Great Britain (1707-1714), Dutch Republic, Developments in Spain and the Mediterranean during 1704 were also fairly encouraging for the emperor and his allies. Punic Wars (33) Antiquity (77) Imperial Rome (52) Romans (2) 1066 Vikings, Saxons and Normans (19) The War of the Roses (31) English Civil War (24) The Renaissance (35) War of the Spanish Succession (64) Jacobite '45 (24) American Revolution (69) Napoleonic Age - PD (53) Napoleonic Age -WoF (153) Texas Revolution (19) American Civil War (54) Wild West (2) Historical … Please select which sections you would like to print: While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. As in 1706, they were again forced to evacuate the capital, and on their retreat eastward they were defeated at Brihuega (December 8–9) and at Villaviciosa (December 10). In the Low Countries, the Maritime Powers were outnumbered by the French so that there was a serious threat to Holland. In the Netherlands Marlborough achieved his final success against the French, breaking Villars’ defensive lines (July–August 1711), which extended from the coast to Valenciennes. In 1668, only three years after Charles II had ascended, the then-childless Leopold had agreed to the partition of the Spanish territories between the Bourbons and the Habsburgs, even though Philip IV's will entitled him to the entire inheritance. By the end of 1704 the whole situation on the Danube front had been altered. Marlborough—ignoring the wishes of the Dutch, who preferred to keep their troops in the Low Countries—led the English and Dutch forces southward to Germany; Eugene, meanwhile, moved northward from Italy with the Austrian army. When the French court first learned of the will, Louis XIV's advisors convinced him that it was safer to accept the terms of the Second Partition Treaty, of 1700, than to risk war by claiming the whole Spanish inheritance. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. A second Partition Treaty (October 1699) between France and England, which was subscribed in March 1700 by the United Provinces, offered Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and the Indies to the archduke Charles. Hostilities between France and Austria lumbered on until 1714, when the Treaties of Rastatt and Baden were ratified, marking the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. They clashed with the French under the Duc de Villars at the Battle of Malplaquet, the bloodiest battle of the war. Armed conflict began slowly, as Austrian forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy invaded the Duchy of Milan, one of the Spanish territories in Italy, prompting French intervention. The war was concluded by the treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714). Even after William III died in 1702, his successor in England, Anne, continued the vigorous prosecution of the war, under the guidance of her ministers Godolphin and Marlborough. France and Spain, both under Bourbon monarchs, remained allies during the following years. The Parliament that met in November 1710 was strongly Tory. In the same month, however, Louis of Baden retreated eastward across the Rhine, and the Dutch rejected Marlborough’s ambitious scheme. Both the French and the Allies sent envoys to Charles's camp, and the French hoped to encourage him to turn his troops against the Emperor Joseph I, who Charles felt had slighted him by his support for Augustus. Catinat, now in charge of the German front, was uncertain whether to mass the French forces on the Lauter or the Ill River, and Louis William successfully besieged and captured Landau in September. In Italy Eugene’s communications with Vienna were cut by Louis Joseph, duc de Vendôme, who had taken over Villeroi’s command; nevertheless, Eugene was able to maintain himself and to harass the French. An army under James Stanhope reached Madrid together with the Archduke Charles, but it was forced to capitulate at Brihuega when a relief army came from France. In March Villars had crossed the Rhine at Kehl and, pushing through the Black Forest, had in May joined the elector of Bavaria near Ulm. Thus, the issue of the inheritance of the Spanish kingdoms—which included not only Spain, but also dominions in Italy, the Low Countries, and the Americas—became quite contentious. By the end of the summer Marlborough had managed to push the French out of the country between the Meuse and the Rhine. The allies, however, imposed more humiliating conditions; they demanded that Louis use the French army to dethrone his own grandson. Although Eugene’s troops had not yet arrived, Marlborough moved to check Vendôme’s advance and defeated the French at the Battle of Oudenaarde (July 11, 1708). Crown of Aragon, Villars was in favour of making a dash for Vienna, but the elector of Bavaria refused. Charles II had become king following the death of his father, Philip IV, in 1665, but he was physically weak and incapable of having children; he was the last male Spanish Habsburg and he had survived longer than anyone had expected. The Duke of Ormonde refused to commit British troops to battle, so the French under Villars were able to recover much lost ground in 1712, such as at the Battle of Denain. Both were direct descendants of Philip IV of Spain through … On the Rhine, an Imperial army under Louis of Baden captured Landau in September, but the threat to Alsace was relieved by the entrance of the Elector of Bavaria into the war on the French side. It now seems clear that English plenipotentiary Charles Townshend, the emperor, and the Dutch were chiefly responsible for these unrealistic terms and that Marlborough, though he did not exert his influence enough, had a sounder appreciation of what could be reasonably expected from France. The War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1715) was a major European conflict of the early 18th century, triggered by the death in 1700 of the last Habsburg King of Spain, the infirm and childless Charles II. Omissions? Henry Saint John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, who was in charge of the English negotiations, adopted an equally ruthless attitude toward his ally, Emperor Charles VI. Charles XII was not prepared to collaborate with France to attack Vienna, and the crisis soon passed. In 1710 he had been ready to pay for troops to expel his grandson from Spain; in 1709 he would have been satisfied if Philip could have been allowed to retain Naples and Sicily; in 1706 he asked only that Naples, Sicily, and Milan be retained for his grandson. The Dutch were offered a strong “barrier” of fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands, but the English and imperial governments would not consider terms that envisaged the partition of the Spanish empire. These humiliating maneuvers were reported to Louis XIV by Catinat’s enemies at the French court, and he was replaced by François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi. In his will Charles gave the crown to Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of King Louis XIV of France. Villars managed to take the lines of Stollhofen in May and was able to raid the whole of Swabia until the margrave of Bayreuth was superseded by George, elector of Hanover (later George I, king of Great Britain). At this point the French forces were increased, for Villeroi, once he had realized that Marlborough had given him the slip, moved south from the Netherlands to join Tallart on the Rhine in Alsace. The Dauphin, being next in the French line of succession as well, was a problematic choice: Had he inherited both the French and the Spanish realms, he would have control of a vast empire that would have threatened the European balance of power. Marlborough might have been able to broker a deal, but by 1710 his own personal position had been undermined by political events in England, and he was not strong enough to overrule his allies. 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